Introduction to Herodotus

I read excerpts of Herodotus' The Histories back in college. It was mixed together with several other ancient literary works and received minimal attention from me and my professor. At this moment I can barely recall which sections I read. Because f my poor recollection I have decided to "re-read" (a slight exaggeration since I never really read it the first time) The Histories.

I have barely scratched the surface of this great work and I am already amazed. Herodotus was from Helicarnassus, though he spent his later years in Athens. Helicarnassus was located on the border of the Persian empire. His location provided Herodotus with a unique view of the Persian and Greek cultures. I have yet to see how this effected his writing, but it must have provided him with some of respect for the Persian community because he introduces them as the "best informed in history." A mighty fine compliment from a man who would become known as the Father of History. His acknowledgement of the Persians superior historical view is surprising because I was led to believe that the Greeks, especially those of Herodotus' time, shared a general dislike of everything Persian.

Herodotus starts his history with brief recap of kidnappings of famous Greek and "Barbarian" women, which he considers the start of poor Greek and Persian relations. These women played important roles in Greek mythology, but are portrayed by the Persians, and Herodotus in a very different manner. Herodotus lists who was kidnapped by who in a very matter of fact manner, and leaves their entire story within the realm of mankind, leaving the gods in their seats on Mount Olympus. Below I have listed the mythologies surrounding these women as given by Wikepedia.

Io

A priestess of Hera in Argos, Io was a nymph who was seduced by Zeus, who changed her into a heifer to escape detection. Her mistress Hera set ever-watchful Argus Panoptes to guard her, but Hermes was sent to distract the guardian and slay him. Heifer Io was loosed to roam the world, stung by a maddening gadfly sent by Hera, and wandered to Egypt, thus placing her descendant Belus in Egypt; his sons Cadmus and Danaus would thus "return" to mainland Greece.

Europe

A Phoenician woman of high lineage, from whom the name of the continent Europe has ultimately been taken. She was abducted by Zeus in the form of a white bull.

Medea

Medea's role began after Jason arrived from Iolcus to Colchis (The old kingdom of Georgia) to claim his inheritance and throne by retrieving the Golden Fleece. Medea fell in love with him and promised to help him, but only on the condition that if he succeeded, he would take her with him and marry her. Jason agreed.

Helen

Helen of Troy was the daughter of Zeus and Leda. She was abducted by Paris and brought about the Trojan War.

Eris Goddess of Strife

Strife:
1.: bitter sometimes violent conflict or dissension
2.: an act of contention : fight, struggle
3.: exertion or contention for superiority

Eris was the Greek goddess of strife and discord. Her Roman counterpart was the goddess Discordia. Her parents are thought to be Zeus and Hera, making her the sister of Ares, but a conflicting myth states that she is the daughter of Erebos, the primeval god of darkness, and Nyx, the night. She was also the mother of the Kakodaimones, the plagues of humanity released by Pandora.

"But abhorred Eris (Strife) bare painful Ponos (Toil), and Lethe (Forgetfulness), and Limos (Starvation), and the Algea (Pains), full of weeping, the Hysminai (Fightings) and the Makhai (Battles), the Phonoi (Murders) and the Androktasiai (Man-slaughters), the Neikea (Quarrels), the Pseudo-Logoi (Lies), the Amphilogiai (Disputes), and Dysnomia (Lawlessness) and Ate (Ruin), who share one another's natures, and Horkos (Oath) who does more damage than any other to earthly men, when anyone, of his knowledge, swears to a false oath."

Hesiod

A vicious and unyielding goddess, Eris was feared by all men. Her standing amongst the gods was shaky as well, most tried to keep their distance. All of the gods and goddesses were invited to the wedding of Thetis and Peleus, except for Eris. When she attempted to attend the wedding anyways she was kicked out. In her need for revenge she quietly tossed a golden apple into the foray. It was inscribed "To the Fairest." Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all believed that the apple Jove to name a mortal to judge who should receive the apple. That mortal was Paris, Prince of Troy. He chose Aphordite in exchange for the love of Helen. Thus began the Trojan War.

Eris (Hate) whose wrath is relentless, she is the sister and companion of murderous Ares, she who is only a little thing at the first, but thereafter grows until she strides on the earth with her head striking heaven.

Homer

This is how Eris took her revenge and grew in power as both men and gods fought a battle inspired by a little golden apple.

Pergamon Altar

The largest altar known to man, the Pergamon Altar sits majestically on Museuminsel in Berlin, Germany. The altar was dedicated to Zeus by the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (modern day Bergama in Turkey) in the 2nd century BCE. It was shipped to Germany between 1879 and 1904 by Carl Humann. The Pergamon Museum was built between 1910 and 1930 to hold the Altar as well as other works from antiquity, especially Middle East and Islamic art.



The altar was originally used for religious and civic purposes. The 40 foot high structure is imposing by today’s standards and would have impressed the feeling of power over any ancient visitor. Its grandeur led to its recognition in Revelation 2:12-13 as “Satan’s Throne.”

When visiting the altar it is easy to forget that the entire structure is an altar, and not a temple with a small altar inside. Visitors climb up a tall flight of stairs to find themselves standing upon the sacrificial altar, i.e. the floor which is an intricate mosaic.



The experience is one of wonder. How did these ancient civilizations create such masterpieces? How is it that Germany was able to move this great structure from Turkey to Germany in 1879?

Attic Pottery: How it was made.

The following is a description of how a Lekythos, such as the one pictured below would have been made in Ancient Greece, around 400 BC.



Attic clay is rich sedentary clay that is characteristically an orange-red color and has plastic properties, making it ideal for pottery. Once the attic clay is dug up it is purified by levigation with large amounts of water and left to settle. At this time stones and other heavy materials will settle at the bottom.

Once the clay is purified and aged the potter throws the pot. In this process the potter shapes the clay as an assistant turns the potter’s wheel. Once the shape is formed the piece is trimmed and uneven clay is removed. At this point the potter added the handle and left the vase to dry. When the vase became leather-hard it would be burnished. This process involved rubbing a hard, smooth piece of leather or wood vigorously across the surface. This would compact and smooth the surface, making it shiny and more durable.

After burnishing the Painter would have sketched the design onto the clay. Then a slip was added to create the black and white gloss that acts as the background on the vase. The clay was left bare where the images were intended to go, the white areas would have been the exception to this, as the whole area would need to be covered to create the white band. The slip was then burnished. The potter painted over his sketch to outline the red-figures with the same material used to create the gloss. In areas where the Painter would have wanted a brown or lighter shade the gloss applied would have been watered down. Once the design was complete the vase was placed in a kiln. The vase then underwent a three-part firing process. In phase one the kiln reaches approximately 800°C in a highly oxidized atmosphere. Phase two, or the reducing phase, involves closing the air vent and raising the temperature to approximately 950°C. In the final phase the kiln is cooled to 900°C and oxygen is allowed in for oxidizing. The vase is then removed from the kiln, ready for use.

Loot: The Battle Over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World

“They were made by other civilizations and found in Turkey. It’s the heritage of all humanity, the heritage of the whole world. This land belongs to us, but what we find under the soil, if we can’t look after it, maybe other people should.” –Mr. Kazim Akbiyikoglu

Whether one agrees or disagrees with the above statement, Sharon Waxman’s book, Loot: the Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World will facilitate an understanding of the points of view about repatriation. Sharon Waxman attempts to accurately depict the multitude of opinions concerning repatriation. Whether or not she has been successful is debatable, but Loot definitely hits close to the mark. Waxman focuses her efforts on four countries: Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. All four of these have had objects repatriated to them from major Western museums, such as the Museé du Louvre, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the J. Paul Getty Museum. By focusing on these four countries, Waxman provides a balanced array of opinions pertaining to repatriation, a hot topic in today’s art world as museums and collectors are forced, for the first time, to answer to countries of origin for questionable past collection policies.



These origin countries want the return of the art of past civilizations which has been removed from their country under questionable circumstances. They argue that the art of ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, is their heritage first, before the heritage of western civilization and the world. Museums that are currently in possession of such objects argue that these pieces belong to the whole world and should be housed where the most people will have access to them. These museums frequently try to support the actions of the past by arguing that modern day inhabitants of these ancient sites are not direct descendants of the civilizations that created the art and therefore lack understanding and appreciation for the artifacts in question. The local inhabitants are portrayed as current inhabitants of the land who see ancient art as a price tag and perpetuate the looting of priceless art. Waxman present these two conflicting points of view and the variances in between without showing her personal opinion.

In Loot, Sharon Waxman approaches repatriation as a veteran journalist. She wrote for the Washington Post for ten years, reporting on Middle Eastern and European politics and culture. She went on to be a New York Times cultural correspondent, primarily focusing on Hollywood. Prior to her journalism career, she received a Master’s from Oxford University in Middle East Studies. Waxman’s approach to researching repatriation reflects her background in journalism because it was primarily focused on collecting first person narratives. She used literary sources to gather an understanding of the history of the four countries presented, but the information regarding present day situations stems from the interviews she conducted. The individuals interviewed were impressive and abundant. Interviewees include current museum staff, past museum staff, national cultural directors, law enforcement, art smugglers, and community members. Waxman provides her readers with the uncommon opportunity to see a panoramic view of repatriation that includes the perspectives of people who have had first hand experiences with repatriation. These experiences are often conveyed in their own words.

These interviews allow her to present the various perspectives held by individuals as well as the different approaches to achieving repatriation used by the four countries she focuses on. Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy follow strategies with various levels of aggression. According to Waxman, Egypt’s strategy has been directed by Zahi Hawass, the secretary-general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities. Hawass has proved to be a formable figure for museums to contend with. He prefers to use the media to grab the public’s attention and support. This is an unconventional approach that is typically looked down upon by museum professionals who believe these issues should be solved through direct communication with the museum. He often surprises people with his candor and spontaneous outbursts in situations when the media is present. While he is often over the top, it has proven to be an effective technique. Today every museum with an Egyptian collection knows his name and is weary of his attention.



Turkey’s approach has traditionally been subtler than Egypt’s. Waxman focuses on the return of the Lydian Hoard to Turkey from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City to show Turkey’s approach. In this example, repatriation was the result of the hard work of civilians with sparse support from the government. While the government has recently increased its role in repatriation, the return of the Lydian Hoard was the result of one journalist’s persistent effort. Waxman presents this example by showing how the Lydian Hoard originally left Turkey as the result of greed and a lack of understanding and respect by the local community. Even after its return, the Lydian Hoard was not safe from greedy hands and the prize piece of the collection was stolen from the museum. Today Turkey’s museums are underfunded and lack security, space and qualified personnel.



Greece has approached repatriation by individually tackling the arguments used against them. The primary example that Waxman uses is the Elgin Marbles held in the British museum. One argument the British Museum has used in the debate over where the marbles belong is that Greece lacked a place where the marbles could be properly cared for and shared with the public. However, this is no longer the case. A new Acropolis museum that meets these provisions is scheduled to open in the summer of 2009. Whether the marbles return to stand in this new facility is yet to be determined. In Greece’s effort to have the Elgin marbles and other artifacts returned, they have attempted to meet the standards of the international museum community and use international laws to support their claims.



Italy has traditionally ignored the use of investigation and law. The primary example Waxman provides is the Italian government’s interaction with the J. Paul Getty museum. In this situation, the Italian government collected evidence that many of the objects held in the Getty’s antiquities department were illegally exported from Italy. Italy pressured the Getty into returning these objects by threatening legal action. Italy eventually followed through on its threat and filed charges against one of the museum’s curators, Marion True. This seems to have worked as a large portion of the requested artifacts have been shipped to Italy, while other objects are awaiting the result of continuing negotiations.



Loot is an engaging read as one is welcomed into a world of intrigue. Waxman is able to show why repatriation is an important and highly debated issue. Whether or not the reader is familiar with the world of museums, they will enjoy the time spent within the pages and go away with new knowledge on the subject. Because of Waxman’s talent as a writer and knowledge of the subject, the reader is able to understand the different and often contradicting perspectives of individuals, institutions, and countries involved.

Museum of Cycladic Art

Located in Athens, Greece the Museum of Cycladic Art is one of, if not the largest single collection of Cycladic artifacts. When planning my trip to Athens it was the third place to see, falling behind the National History Museum and the Acropolis.

The museum was founded in 1968 to house ancient Greek and Cycladic art. During my visit a portion of the Greek exhibit was closed and on tour elsewhere, however the Cycladic exhibit was open. I did have a little scare that I would not be able to see the exhibit because the Museum was keeping odd hours the day I went. It opened at 6pm. This change of hours occurred because the Museum was giving away free books to registered archaeologists; a practice that I fully support. On a side note it was very interesting to see that the majority of the archaeologists were women.

The artifacts at the museum were in excellent condition. The exhibit was well organized and provided you with a very good sense of the values of the people being represented.



Marble Cycladic figurines come from 3,200 to 2,000 bc and are the main type of artifact preserved from this time. The height of these figures varies significantly. Some are a few centimeters high while others are 4 feet tall. The standard figurine would be lying down on their back with their knees bent and arms crossed over the stomach. The majority of figures did not have many individual features, such as eyes or mouth, but they all had a prominent nose and sometimes ears. Their style reminds me of modern sculpture.

Decentralization of the Museum in Greece

Greece, like most Mesopotamian countries, is abundant with ancient artifacts. Greece used to display the majority of its artifacts in a central, national archaeological museum in Athens. While this was great for tourists, who could experience all of Greece's history in a "one-stop shop". However, this didn't provide tourists with the complete picture of what Greece had to offer in the Classical period, or today. Viewing a sculpture of Apollo while standing a few feet from the temple it adorned in provides a context that can be easily lost in a museum with hundreds of other sculptures. Recently the Greek government has decided to re-disperse the artifacts to the regions where they originated. This new arrangement has the added benefit of dispersing the profits created through tourism. The regional archaeological museums allow tourists to view artifacts in context and in a time that does not push their attention limits.

Greece Vacation: The Acropolis

Recently I was lucky enough to travel to Greece for 10 days. It was an amazing vacation. A dream vacation. In the next couple of posts I will be discussing various things that I observed while there. I spent my time in Attica and Crete. I'm going to start these posts in the most obvious place, the Acropolis.



The Acropolis was amazing to see in person. I unfortunately do not posses the vocabulary to properly express what it is like to be in a place that one has studied and imagined for years. I will only say that I was overwhelmed and lost in a euphoria.

When visiting the Acropolis I was naturally drawn to the Parthenon, as one should be. After all it was built to awe visitors and honor the Goddess Athena. Athena happens to be my favorite of all the Greek Gods. Despite this natural draw I found that I preferred spending my time admiring another building on the Acropolis, the Erechtheum.

The Erechtheum is located in the north side of the Acropolis. While significantly smaller than the Parthenon it provides it's visitors with a rare sight. Caryatids, statues of draped women functioning as columns, support the "Porch of Maidens". The porch is located on the south side of the building, leaving the statues forever gazing at the Parthenon. Today the original Caryatids reside in the British Museum, except for one located in the Acropolis Museum (Which was closed as they were moving the artifacts from the old museum to a new museum.).



The Erechtheum was built for an ancient Hero named Erichthonius, although some believe it was actually built in honor of the legendary King Erechtheus. The building was erected sometime between 421 and 407 BCE.