The Bible

"We must not read our own meaning into scripture, but must make the sentence of scripture ours."

Hugh of St. Victor

The following is based on information found in Karen Armstrong's book "The Bible". The book is very well written and is highly informative. I have read about religion and the Bible many times and I feel this book would be good for anyone interested in how the Bible became THE Bible.

The Israelites began as a tribal nation. These tribes kept their legends and histories alive through an active oral tradition. Most tribes would focus on local events and heroes, which tended to be part of or similar to the broader Israelite history. In 1000BCE the tribes united into two monarchies: Judah and Israel.

Durring the 18th century BCE the area underwent a literary revolution. In Greece Homer's poetry was recorded and in Israel and Judah the oral traditions were recorded. These records morphed the old tribes' tradions into national sagas. These sagas were subject to the needs of the time, and adapted throughout history to fit the contemporary situation. The sagas were constantly changing until the time of Ezra, who used these teachings as the foundation for his work, legitimizing and formalizing them into the Torah.

In the Third century BCE Jewis scriptures began to be translated into Greek. Myth surrounds the first translation of the Torah. Ptolemy Philadelphus, Greek King of Egypt, wanted a Greek copy of the scriptures and gathered seventy priests to write a translation. It was agreed that the translation was perfect and named the Septuagint. Another variation of the myth had the seventy priest write seperate translations, but when they brought them together they found that the had all written the same translation, word for word. It was the allegorical treatment of this translation by Greek readers that produced the idea that scripture could have more than its literal meaning. Scripture had a deeper meaning.Paul developed this further, saying the scriptures were there to teach something. His letters, later includded in the Bible, were mean to bring these lessons to light.

The Bible was not canonized until the fourth century. It includded the gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles by Paul, James, Peter, John and Jude, Hebrews and Revelation. Jerome, a fluent western exegetes translated the Bible into Latin. This became known as the Vulgate. The Vulgate was the standard European text until the sixteenth century. the Vulgate was copied and re-copied by monks until their copying errors became compounded and texts they wrote varied from the original.

Mineral Exhibits

Recently I visited the Houston Natural History museum and was able to peruse their natural mineral exhibit. Impressive is a dramatic understatement. It is not surprising that a natural history museum situated at the center of the American oil industry would have an impressive collection, both in size of the pieces and their quantity. The museum has rooms upon rooms of uncut stones. I still am unsure if I walked through all of the rooms, as many of them are hidden around corners. I can not begin to imagine what natural wonders sit protected in museum storage.

The exhibit, while mesmerizing was less than fascinating. The exhibit listed what each object was, but gave little or no information about how the mineral was formed. The exhibit was designed to showcase the collection rather than educate the visitor. The floors were covered with red carpeting. The lights were turned down, as jazz music played through unseen speakers. The ambiance reflected that of a jewelry store, not a museum.

On the other side of the spectrum is the Natural History Museum in New York city. This exhibit is clearly designed to educate the visitor. The mineral collection is less impressive than the one in Houston, but what they have has been put to good use. The exhibit is designed to educate, but the last time I was able to see the exhibit some of the educational tools where out of service. The exhibit seems to really on the fact that the visitor will already have a basic knowledge of minerals, or that they will be with someone who does.

Pergamon Altar

The largest altar known to man, the Pergamon Altar sits majestically on Museuminsel in Berlin, Germany. The altar was dedicated to Zeus by the ancient Greek city of Pergamon (modern day Bergama in Turkey) in the 2nd century BCE. It was shipped to Germany between 1879 and 1904 by Carl Humann. The Pergamon Museum was built between 1910 and 1930 to hold the Altar as well as other works from antiquity, especially Middle East and Islamic art.



The altar was originally used for religious and civic purposes. The 40 foot high structure is imposing by today’s standards and would have impressed the feeling of power over any ancient visitor. Its grandeur led to its recognition in Revelation 2:12-13 as “Satan’s Throne.”

When visiting the altar it is easy to forget that the entire structure is an altar, and not a temple with a small altar inside. Visitors climb up a tall flight of stairs to find themselves standing upon the sacrificial altar, i.e. the floor which is an intricate mosaic.



The experience is one of wonder. How did these ancient civilizations create such masterpieces? How is it that Germany was able to move this great structure from Turkey to Germany in 1879?

Theft at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania

The Historical Society of Pennsylvania (HSP) has a tremendous collection of 12,000 objects which tell the story of Pennsylvania through the civil war. The collection was moved and the catalogue was digitized in 1997. After the collection was moved Artifact Collections Manager, Kristen Froehlich, was reconciling locations for all the objects when she noticed something peculiar. She could not locate four items from the collection. Three swords presented by the citizens of Philadelphia to Civil War General George G. Meade, David Bell Birney, and Andrew A. Humphreys and a 1785 long-rifle were missing. After establishing that these artifacts were no longer in the museum the FBI was contacted by staff members to investigate.

Ms. Froehlich submitted a Notification of Theft form to the FBI on November 13, 1997. This document required her to submit valuable information to the FBI that could be found in the catalogue. For accession number P-4-9, the long-rifle, the form contained the known name of the object, the rifle’s previous owner, the date it was made, a photograph, the manufacturer, a description with measurements, a list of the materials the object is made from, unique decorations, engravings, a condition report and a list of publications mentioning the item. This information was also dispersed to other museums and dealers in the hopes that they would have information regarding the items’ location.

The FBI took this information to one of the largest Civil War weapon shows on the East Coast, the Great Southern Weapons Fair. The agent assigned to the case, Robert K. Whittman, dispersed the photographs and histories of the objects to the various experts and collectors present. It was at this fair that the FBI caught a break in the case. An expert on presentation swords, Bruce Brazelon, recognized at least one of the swords as being part of a group that had been offered for potential sale in 1994. This particular sword had been noted as missing during a previous inventory check. The museum had noted the misplacement of several items over the years, but was unable to prove if they had been stolen or simply misplaced. These items had not been included in the Notification of Theft form, but the list was provided to FBI as additional information. Including this list of missing objects proved to be invaluable in the recovery of the stolen materials. This sword had not been included in the list of thefts, and would not have been recognized by the sword expert if it had not been included in the list of objects with unknown locations. FBI agent Whittman brought information about all of the missing works to the weapon show, not merely the ones thought to be stolen.


Brazelon could not confirm if the items had been sold, but he did know who was trying to make the sale, a Poconos flea market dealer. With this new information in hand the FBI agents contacted the Poconos flea market dealer. The dealer was able to provide the FBI with the name of the person who tried to sell him the swords, George Csizmazia. Csizmazia was an electrical contractor from Rutledge, Pennsylvania, who had been briefly employed by HSP ten years earlier. At first Csizmazia denied any knowledge of the sword and other objects missing from HSP. The FBI had to break down his story, starting with his denial of knowledge of the swords. Eventually Csizmazia admitted the truth and brought the agents to his home where they found the stolen artifacts and approximately 200 of the “missing” artifacts. Csizmazia’s collection was strewn about his home. Objects, including a ring with a lock of George Washington’s hair, cigar holders, and the telescope used by Elisha Kent Kane to locate the Polar Sea were haphazardly placed on coffee tables, shelves, and on the walls. He even admitted to trimming his hedges with a sword from the 1600’s.
At this time Kristen Froehlich and Robert K. Whittman met with the objects and confirmed that the artifacts found in Csizmania’s home were the same pieces that belonged to HSP. They did this by reviewing each piece and comparing it to the photograph HSP had on file and the catalogue information. They had to make sure that each piece matched the museum’s records down to every inscription. This process did two things. First, it proved that the pieces had originated at HSP and the museum would be able to reclaim the objects after the case was closed. Second, it provided the FBI with an exact list of all the items stolen which affected the charges they would place against the suspect.

After further questioning, Csizmazia informed Agent Whittman of how he gained possession of the artifacts. About ten years earlier the subject had met a janitor, Earnest Medford, at HSP while Csizmania had been contracted to do some electrical work. The two men became friends. Medford eventually learned of the other man’s interest in history, particularly the civil war era and military antiques. At one of their meetings Medford presented Csizmania with a gift, a small artifact he had picked up at HSP. After this the security guard continued to “pick up” items for the collector, who paid him a small stipend. Over the years the security guard was paid around $8,000 for the items he stole. It turns out the thief was being severely under paid by his friend. The objects were worth between two and three million dollars. Csizmania and Medford were convicted of theft of culturally significant historical artifacts and were sentenced to spend four years in jail.

Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center

The Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center is a small institution connected to the Montclair State University. Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center was founded to honor Yogi Berra and his legendary baseball career. There are few more recognizable names in baseball than Yogi Berra. Born in 1925 in St. Lois, Missouri Yogi always had an affinity for America’s pastime. He became a part of the Yankee franchise in 1942 when they signed him to play with their minor league team, the Newark Bears. It was not until after Yogi returned from serving in the Navy during World War II that the Yankees brought him to play in the majors. Yogi was a flamboyant player, continually talking behind the plate to distract opposing batters and freely swinging his bat were standard parts of his game. Yogi’s active career included fifteen All-Star Star appearances, three time American League Most Valuable Player, played in fourteen World Series including ten wins, and holds multiple World Series records. After a stunning career on the field Yogi moved to the dugout and became the Yankees manager in 1964. Shortly after this Yogi was fired by the Yankees and joined the Mets as a player-coach. This move caused a media frenzy in New York. The Yankees’ star had jumped the fence into the National League, and New Yorkers did not know how to respond. Yogi became the Mets manager in 1972. A year later he brought the last place Mets to National League pennant champions. In 1976, Yogi returned to his old team to be a coach. In 1985 Yogi was fired as manager by George Steinbrenner 16 games into the season. This created a rift between Yogi and the Yankees, which was finally reconciled during a private meeting in 1996 at the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center. In 1986 Yogi became manager of the Houston Astros, where he stayed until he retired in 1992. Yogi was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972.

It should be no surprise that after such a distinguished career in New York with the Yankees and Mets Yogi Berra has become a beloved icon of the New York city area. It is with respect to this admiration that the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center was founded in 1998. Yogi and the Montclair State University have shared a long history. Yogi has had a residence in Montclair for the past fifty years. In 1996 Montclair State University provided Yogi with an honorary doctorate, a fine achievement for a man who had dropped out of high school to help support his family. In 1998 the University honored Yogi once again by naming their baseball stadium after him. Adjacent to the stadium they founded the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center. After a career in baseball that lasted over forty years, Yogi dedicated his life to the betterment of children through education, a dedication that the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center strives to continue. The Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center focuses on providing visitors with an educational and enjoyable experience that provides a “nostalgic return to baseball when it was just a game.” The Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center’s primary focus is on educational programming. This is made clear in the museum’s mission “to preserve and promote the values of respect, sportsmanship, social justice and excellence through inclusive, culturally diverse sports-based educational programs and exhibits.”

Yogi Berra’s career centered around the Yankee and Shea Stadiums, two monuments to America’s pastime. After standing over the Bronx for eighty five years Yankee Stadium was closed after the 2008 season. Shea Stadium also closed in 2008 after serving as the home of the Mets for forty four years. These two stadiums are monuments on their own, but because of their close association with Yogi the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center decided to showcase them in the current exhibit Going, Gone, Goodbye. The exhibit stands as a tribute to these two structures through the perspective of Yogi Berra. With a subject like this it would be easy for the exhibit to become stuck in the past, but the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center also conveys the idea that change is an essential part of society, and that New York baseball fans should look forward to the new stadiums.

The Museum Catalogue: An Essential Document

Inventory systems, or catalogues, are essential to the fundamental success of museums. Every museum strives to maintain a complete and accurate catalogue of its collection. This desire is not always achieved as the day to day responsibilities of the registrar detract from time spent on updating the catalogue.

The catalogue acts as an inventory system, providing the museum with a complete list of what it hold in the collection. The lack of a complete catalogue is unfortunate because “in addition to facilitating the improvement of research, documentation, and storage, an ongoing inventory system can be an essential security device.” (Malaro, Marie. A legal Primer on Managing Museum Collections) The catalogue provides a secure source of information on every object held within the museum. This information includes, but is not limited to, the object’s location within the museum and a detailed history and description of the object. This information helps the museum recognize when a theft has occurred and can be used by authorities to locate and recover the stolen objects. An ambiguous description can help authorities locate objects to an extent, but without a fully detailed description the museum may never be able to prove rightful ownership and recover these pieces.

As personnel change, knowledge of objects is lost unless it is recorded in a catalogue. Museums are constantly adding to their collections. Between new additions and changing personnel it becomes difficult to complete all categories within a catalogue for each object.

A typical catalogue will answer the following questions about an object: What type of object is it? What is the object made of? How was it made? How big is it? Does it have any identifying markings or distinguishing features? Does the object have a known title? What is represented? When was it made? Who made it? Who has owned it? The typical catalogue will also have a short description and photograph. When these questions are answered and recorded the security of a collection is improved exponentially.

Sassona Norton at the Morris Museum

The Morris Museum, located in Morristown, NJ, is currently exhibiting a variety of sculpture in their new gallery. The exhibit shows the development of sculpture from ancient Buddhist reliefs to contemporary sculpture. The exhibit opened on November 3, 2008 and will remain on display through May 2009. The exhibit is composed of eleven pieces and features three pieces by artist Sassona Norton.

Sassona Norton is a contemporary sculptor who prefers to work in the traditional process of lost-wax bronze casting, a technique that spawns from the ancient Egyptians who followed the same process, substituting wax for sand. Norton was selected out of thirty artists to construct a public memorial to 9/11 in Norristown, PA. The current exhibit at the Morris Museum is the second time the museum has featured Norton’s work. She was the primary artist in a 2006 exhibit. In the current exhibit she has three pieces, Memories of Sweetness, Unquenchable Thirst, and An Hour Before Dawn. Each piece was given to the museum directly from Norton for the purpose of exhibition.



Two of these works are used to frame the exhibit as the first and last things a visitor encounters. The first, Memories of Sweetness depicts a bald woman puckering her lips as if to kiss while holding out her hands as if she were holding a small animal with one hand and petting it with the other. The artist has chosen to show the woman’s hands and head, leaving the rest to the imagination. Her soft gesture conflicts with the coldness projected from the Cor-ten steel I-beam shaped column upon which it rests. This piece stands facing the entrance greeting each visitor.

The second donated piece faces the exit of the exhibit. This piece, Unquenchable Thirst shows the same female figure, only in this rendition her mouth is open and her hands are cupped as if she was holding water. Here too the artist has chosen to portray the woman’s hands and head on a Cor-ten steel beam. The sculptures share qualities of style, technique, and subject, but the end result is drastically different. Where the first piece is welcoming, reminding visitors of loving grandmothers, the second is harsh and unyielding. Norton accomplishes this with the severity of the gapping mouth.

Both of Norton’s pieces were created using the lost-wax bronze casting technique. Each sculpture is made of parts that give the illusion of the whole. Her use of parts to make a whole has been a major theme throughout her career.

The exhibit greatly benefits from the inclusion of these two pieces. The pieces show how one of the oldest techniques in sculpture is used in the contemporary world. Because of the connection between the old and new worlds of sculpture these works pull together the ancient Buddhist wood carvings with modern works of mix media and abstract thoughts.

SI extended hours

The Smithsonian Institute has three of the most popular US museums; the Air and Space museum, the Natural History museum, and the American History museum. This summer these museums will be open later than ever before. The museums had previously closed at 5:30 pm. Now, three times a week they will be open one to two hours later.

FINALLY!!

What has the Smithsonian been waiting for? I recently lived in DC and can honestly say that, as a local, it was nearly impossible to visit these museums. They were open while people were at work and then mobbed by tourists and children throughout the weekend. With these extended evenings it is my belief that locals will frequent these museums more often. Let's face it, locals are always happier when they can avoid tourists.

Attic Pottery: How it was made.

The following is a description of how a Lekythos, such as the one pictured below would have been made in Ancient Greece, around 400 BC.



Attic clay is rich sedentary clay that is characteristically an orange-red color and has plastic properties, making it ideal for pottery. Once the attic clay is dug up it is purified by levigation with large amounts of water and left to settle. At this time stones and other heavy materials will settle at the bottom.

Once the clay is purified and aged the potter throws the pot. In this process the potter shapes the clay as an assistant turns the potter’s wheel. Once the shape is formed the piece is trimmed and uneven clay is removed. At this point the potter added the handle and left the vase to dry. When the vase became leather-hard it would be burnished. This process involved rubbing a hard, smooth piece of leather or wood vigorously across the surface. This would compact and smooth the surface, making it shiny and more durable.

After burnishing the Painter would have sketched the design onto the clay. Then a slip was added to create the black and white gloss that acts as the background on the vase. The clay was left bare where the images were intended to go, the white areas would have been the exception to this, as the whole area would need to be covered to create the white band. The slip was then burnished. The potter painted over his sketch to outline the red-figures with the same material used to create the gloss. In areas where the Painter would have wanted a brown or lighter shade the gloss applied would have been watered down. Once the design was complete the vase was placed in a kiln. The vase then underwent a three-part firing process. In phase one the kiln reaches approximately 800°C in a highly oxidized atmosphere. Phase two, or the reducing phase, involves closing the air vent and raising the temperature to approximately 950°C. In the final phase the kiln is cooled to 900°C and oxygen is allowed in for oxidizing. The vase is then removed from the kiln, ready for use.

The Photograph and the Connoisseur

Connoisseurship is done through extensive research and comparing individual pieces with one known to be from the attributed artist’s oeuvre. This is a difficult and often expensive task, because the connoisseur has to compare artworks by viewing one for which he takes extensive notes and then traveling, often internationally, to view the other. In this scenario the connoisseur conducts the comparison with nothing but a few notes and his memory. This is hardly a perfect system. When connoisseurs were relatively new they may have had access to a sketch or print copy of one or both works, but these were only as good as the copier was skilled and presented the copier’s interpretation of the work. The connoisseur had quite the task to complete. In the 1820’s his task seemed to become easier with the advent of modern photography.

Photography allowed connoisseurs to view and compare works together, under the same conditions, without the difficulties of travel, the deficiencies of memories, and the interference of a copier’s interpretation. This meant that the connoisseur could compare brushstrokes and make a more accurate comparison. However, this was not the case. Connoisseurs believed that they were making accurate comparisons, and thus their dedications were beyond doubt, but they soon realized they were still dependent upon the interpretation of the photograph and the quality of the image. The lighting, angle, and distance of the photograph can affect what the connoisseur sees and does not see. Photography is a deceptive aid. While it is more practical than travelling great distances to see two works separately, and more accurate then a drawn or printed copy, photography is still just a copy.

While photography does not provide accurate copies for traditional connoisseur methods, these copies are useful for non-traditional comparison methods. An example of a non-traditional method is discussed in the article “Fractal expressionism.” Through the use of photography the abstract paintings of Jackson Pollock were analyzed. A computer grid was placed over a scanned photograph to analyze the dispersal pattern of paint in Pollock’s works. Through this method a pattern was discovered that could not have been proven without the use of photography. This pattern can now be used to determine the authenticity of paintings attributed to Jackson Pollock.


A primary task of the connoisseur is to judge the authenticity of an
As photographic technology has developed the role of photography in connoisseurship has expanded. Since the birth of modern photography art has been studied through photographs. While the majority of people experience artworks solely through photographs, professional connoisseurs recognize the limitations of a photo and prefer to see the artwork in person and then use a photograph in addition to notes to aid their memories. In this fashion, photography will continue to be used by connoisseurs. It will also be used in conjunction with science to find new tools for authenticating artwork. The photograph is welcome to stay, but only as an advisory tool. It will not be used as the primary source for comparison.

3 Types of Prints

The three major categories of printmaking techniques are Relief, Intaglio, and Lithographic.

The oldest known printed book, the Diamond Sutra from China, was made from relief prints. It is currently held in the British Library. Relief is the oldest printmaking category and has undergone many adaptations creating multiple techniques including but not limited to: woodcut, wood engraving, photoengraving, mezzotint, anastatic printing, stipple engraving, and linocut. Relief printing developed separately in ancient times in China and Egypt. When working in relief artists remove the areas of the matrix that will not be printed. This leaves the lines and “image” to be printed on the surface plane, while the “white” space, or area that is not going to be printed below the surface plane. The surface of the matrix is then coated in an even layer of ink, and then pressed onto paper or linen. This process does not require large amounts of pressure to create a print.

Intaglio prints are made from matrixes similar to relief prints, however the area to be printed is carved out of the surface. This leaves the “white” area of the print on the surface and the “colored” area depressed. In the printing process ink is pressed into the plate and then wiped off of the surface of the matrix. This process is typically done with a printing press to ensure that high, even pressure is placed on the matrix. The press pushes the paper into the inked crevices. The pressure creates an outline or indentation in the paper along the edge of the matrix. This technique was invented in the 1430’s. Intaglio prints were used to create multiple copies of books and art before the advancement of photography and the digital age. Intaglio prints are still used today, though they are less fashionable. An example of a recent intaglio print can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Roger Vieillard’s 1963 Horse. The print clearly shows how the depth of a carved line in the Matrix effects the resulting shade and clarity of the print. The cactus in the image is carved deeper than any other line, making it pop out on the page.

Lithographic prints are made from a smooth porous stone or plate. The image is made with a grease pencil on the surface of the stone. The stone is then wetted, which will stop the oil-based ink from adhering to the stone when spread across the surface for printing. This technique is the only one that will produce a printed image that is in the same direction as the original. The other techniques produce mirrored reflections. This technique was invented in 1796 by Alois Senefelder and became popular in the early 19th century. Artists such as Manet, Redon, and Goya composed lithographic prints during this time. The MoMA currently has Redon’s L’Oeil comme un ballon bizarre se dirige vers l’infini from 1882. The piece is an excellent example of the shades of gray in a lithographic artist’s repertoire as well as the detail and clear lines possible with this technique.

Loot: The Battle Over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World

“They were made by other civilizations and found in Turkey. It’s the heritage of all humanity, the heritage of the whole world. This land belongs to us, but what we find under the soil, if we can’t look after it, maybe other people should.” –Mr. Kazim Akbiyikoglu

Whether one agrees or disagrees with the above statement, Sharon Waxman’s book, Loot: the Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World will facilitate an understanding of the points of view about repatriation. Sharon Waxman attempts to accurately depict the multitude of opinions concerning repatriation. Whether or not she has been successful is debatable, but Loot definitely hits close to the mark. Waxman focuses her efforts on four countries: Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. All four of these have had objects repatriated to them from major Western museums, such as the Museé du Louvre, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the J. Paul Getty Museum. By focusing on these four countries, Waxman provides a balanced array of opinions pertaining to repatriation, a hot topic in today’s art world as museums and collectors are forced, for the first time, to answer to countries of origin for questionable past collection policies.



These origin countries want the return of the art of past civilizations which has been removed from their country under questionable circumstances. They argue that the art of ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, is their heritage first, before the heritage of western civilization and the world. Museums that are currently in possession of such objects argue that these pieces belong to the whole world and should be housed where the most people will have access to them. These museums frequently try to support the actions of the past by arguing that modern day inhabitants of these ancient sites are not direct descendants of the civilizations that created the art and therefore lack understanding and appreciation for the artifacts in question. The local inhabitants are portrayed as current inhabitants of the land who see ancient art as a price tag and perpetuate the looting of priceless art. Waxman present these two conflicting points of view and the variances in between without showing her personal opinion.

In Loot, Sharon Waxman approaches repatriation as a veteran journalist. She wrote for the Washington Post for ten years, reporting on Middle Eastern and European politics and culture. She went on to be a New York Times cultural correspondent, primarily focusing on Hollywood. Prior to her journalism career, she received a Master’s from Oxford University in Middle East Studies. Waxman’s approach to researching repatriation reflects her background in journalism because it was primarily focused on collecting first person narratives. She used literary sources to gather an understanding of the history of the four countries presented, but the information regarding present day situations stems from the interviews she conducted. The individuals interviewed were impressive and abundant. Interviewees include current museum staff, past museum staff, national cultural directors, law enforcement, art smugglers, and community members. Waxman provides her readers with the uncommon opportunity to see a panoramic view of repatriation that includes the perspectives of people who have had first hand experiences with repatriation. These experiences are often conveyed in their own words.

These interviews allow her to present the various perspectives held by individuals as well as the different approaches to achieving repatriation used by the four countries she focuses on. Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy follow strategies with various levels of aggression. According to Waxman, Egypt’s strategy has been directed by Zahi Hawass, the secretary-general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities. Hawass has proved to be a formable figure for museums to contend with. He prefers to use the media to grab the public’s attention and support. This is an unconventional approach that is typically looked down upon by museum professionals who believe these issues should be solved through direct communication with the museum. He often surprises people with his candor and spontaneous outbursts in situations when the media is present. While he is often over the top, it has proven to be an effective technique. Today every museum with an Egyptian collection knows his name and is weary of his attention.



Turkey’s approach has traditionally been subtler than Egypt’s. Waxman focuses on the return of the Lydian Hoard to Turkey from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City to show Turkey’s approach. In this example, repatriation was the result of the hard work of civilians with sparse support from the government. While the government has recently increased its role in repatriation, the return of the Lydian Hoard was the result of one journalist’s persistent effort. Waxman presents this example by showing how the Lydian Hoard originally left Turkey as the result of greed and a lack of understanding and respect by the local community. Even after its return, the Lydian Hoard was not safe from greedy hands and the prize piece of the collection was stolen from the museum. Today Turkey’s museums are underfunded and lack security, space and qualified personnel.



Greece has approached repatriation by individually tackling the arguments used against them. The primary example that Waxman uses is the Elgin Marbles held in the British museum. One argument the British Museum has used in the debate over where the marbles belong is that Greece lacked a place where the marbles could be properly cared for and shared with the public. However, this is no longer the case. A new Acropolis museum that meets these provisions is scheduled to open in the summer of 2009. Whether the marbles return to stand in this new facility is yet to be determined. In Greece’s effort to have the Elgin marbles and other artifacts returned, they have attempted to meet the standards of the international museum community and use international laws to support their claims.



Italy has traditionally ignored the use of investigation and law. The primary example Waxman provides is the Italian government’s interaction with the J. Paul Getty museum. In this situation, the Italian government collected evidence that many of the objects held in the Getty’s antiquities department were illegally exported from Italy. Italy pressured the Getty into returning these objects by threatening legal action. Italy eventually followed through on its threat and filed charges against one of the museum’s curators, Marion True. This seems to have worked as a large portion of the requested artifacts have been shipped to Italy, while other objects are awaiting the result of continuing negotiations.



Loot is an engaging read as one is welcomed into a world of intrigue. Waxman is able to show why repatriation is an important and highly debated issue. Whether or not the reader is familiar with the world of museums, they will enjoy the time spent within the pages and go away with new knowledge on the subject. Because of Waxman’s talent as a writer and knowledge of the subject, the reader is able to understand the different and often contradicting perspectives of individuals, institutions, and countries involved.

Book Review: Museum of the Missing: A History of Art Theft

Museum of the Missing: A History of Art Theft by Simon Houpt addresses the art world’s worst nightmare and threat, art theft. Art theft has been on the rise since the 1950’s when art began to sell for over hundreds of thousands of dollars. Thieves and their buyers are part of an intricate underground network that is overlooked by the general public. Houpt emphasizes the cultural and moral importance of dissuading the buying and selling of stolen art by providing a general history of art theft.



The book’s publication in 2006 occurred at a relevant time in the history of art theft, as evidenced by the recovery of Edvard Munch’s Madonna and The Scream by Norwegian police shortly thereafter. The two pieces, stolen on August 22, 2004, were one of the various examples used by Houpt to convey the dramatic history of art theft.

Edvard Munch's Madonna

Houpt structured his book to address the history of art theft from various angles. He examines the subject from the point of view of the collector, the thief, the investigator, museum security, and the law. By covering these perspectives Houpt provides the reader with a general overview of who is concerned with art theft and why while maintaining a narrative voice. Houpt notes that the individual art thief did not play a large role in stealing art until the 1950’s when art started to sell at auctions for noteworthy prices. Although Houpt’s voice is clearly biased, his view is generally accepted by professionals in the art world. Before high prices caught the attention of the average thief, stealing art was typically the result of conquering kings and the looting of armies. Houpt reserves one chapter, about a third of the book, for the topic and explains how kings took art from conquered lands as proof of the victor’s strength and superiority. His primary example of such activity is Hitler’s treatment of cultural property in World War II. The chapter, “Theft in the Time of War,” dedicated to looting can appear out of place despite its length because the rest of the book is focused on the effect of the common thief in the art world. The chapter appears to be a side story that grows out of proportion as compared to the primary plot. The remainder of the book is dedicated to art theft conducted by an individual or small band of thieves.

The book continues to explore the history of common art thieves through pertinent examples. One of his examples was Adam Worth, a successful art thief based in London. Worth created a rich persona that allowed him to move through London society at ease, investigating potential thefts. His story and those of others reflect the romanticism Houpt believes the general public associates with art theft. In balance to Worth’s villain, Houpt introduces his readers to Charley Hill, a Scotland Yard investigator who worked undercover to recover stolen art, including Goya’s Portrait of Doña Antonia Zárate. Houpt uses Hill’s real life experience to show the public what art professionals already know, that art thieves are not romantic characters looking for expensive thrills, they are criminals and purveyors of corruption. These criminals take the world’s cultural heritage away from the public, the rightful heirs of these works.

Goya’s Portrait of Doña Antonia Zárate.

Houpt uses these examples to demonstrate that art is a part of our cultural heritage that illistrates the great potential and achievements of mankind. Great works of art should be preserved to inspire all aspects of life. A sacred relic inspires the religious to believe. A landscape painting inspires the preservation and enjoyment of nature. It is important to protect these inspirations for future generations. This leads Houpt to address one of the many difficulties that arise in defending art from thieves. Because of the influence and importance of art, Houpt and other art professionals believe it should be easily accessible to the public. This may sound simple in theory, but it proves to be difficult in practice. Making art accessible, yet safe and secure raises many security issues. Methods of security used by museums to secure artwork include motion and heat sensors, video surveillance, trained security, alarms, and protective glass cases, however, these methods can be expensive and are not foolproof. In addition to the expense these methods bring to a museum, they also decrease the accessibility of the objects to the public. Houpt used an example of how glass was used to protect artwork, but the glass made it difficult for visitors to view brushstrokes. These difficulties are elegantly presented by Houpt, but he never provides a solution or best practices that can guide museums.

Beyond traditional security measures, Houpt places responsibility for object security on museum registrars. The public rarely sees the museum registrar and may not recognize their role. By placing a spotlight on the registrar, Houpt introduced the public to their role and reminds the registrar of the importantance of their job, especially in respect to security. Museum registrars can defend their museum from theft by maintaining a current and accurate catalogue of all objects in their collection. This will aid in realizing a theft, identifying the missing piece, and orchastraiting the recovery. Incomplete catalogues are an issue that many museums face. Another practice that helps registrars protect museum collections from art theft is to research and demans proper provenance for all incoming objects. The collection and general reputation of a museum will be tarnished if it acquires an artwork that lacks proper provenance. The public trust holds museums to a high moral standard; the purchasing of stolen art work damages this trust. In addition to lowering the public’s trust in the institution, purchasing objects without proper provenance increases the demand for stolen pieces. Beyond these methods to deter theft, registrars should reference stolen art databases when acquiring artwork.

In the end, Houpt listed a few ways that museum professionals can help to minimize and fight art theft, but he did not present any new methods or ideas. While the book does address an important topic that is often overlooked by the general public, it does not present information that is useful for the museum professional. Houpt’s casual style and vocabulary are more appropriate for the layperson. The book is eloquently written and uses well chosen examples to convey important ideas. Anyone looking for an introduction of the world of art theft would be satisfied with this book, however, it is not for the museum professional who is looking for guidance on how to handle situations in their job related to art theft.

Houpt, Simon. Museum of the Missing: A History of Art Theft. Sterling Publishing Co.: New York, NY. 2006.

International Relations

The following are news articles that discuss various international relations issues that effect museums.

Taiwan and China

Dr. Hawass and the Bust of Nefertiti

Ethiopian Crown and British Museums

Kenyan Memorial Statues

Museum of Egyptian Antiquities in Cairo

Get up there son.
You too Jen, climb on top.
Now smile for the camera.
Click

Although the language and names spoken vary from time to time this is a typical conversation outside of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities in Cairo, as tourists climb onto the marble sphinx that stand guard in the Museum's garden for a photograph.



Recently I was lucky enough to travel to Egypt. This was a dream vacation that lived up to my greatest expectations. During my travels up the Nile and across the East Desert I saw monuments that I have studied in books since high school. While the pyramids were just as imposing as I had imagined and the temples more intricate and detailed than pictures can give justice there was one place in Egypt that did disappoint me, The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities in Cairo. As the primary museum for a country buried with history I expected to see great works of art and culture in an environment that supported their development and preservation.

It was to my great disappointment to see that this is not the case. Not only did the example above occur twice while I waited outside for my ticket, but inside the museum visitors had free reign, touching and leaning on ancient artifacts. The museum's conservation efforts began and seemed to end with their no photography policy. A few signs were located sparingly through out the museum saying "Do not touch", but this was not enforced, never mind followed. There was a beautiful statue of a Pharaoh from the Old Kingdom that was an example of beautiful workmanship. You could see the detail of a kneecap under thin drapery. While I was examining this piece a woman approached an noticed the same detail. She then proceeded to rub her hand across the knee of the statue. How can we expect these objects to survive for another thousand years if they are exposed to this kind of treatment? If visitors hands do not eventually rub away the workmanship of the ancient Egyptians, the chemicals left by their hands will.

Objects were crowded together with out any information pertaining to their history or significance. A few pieces did have labels, but these are few and far between and only offered in Arabic, with the occasional English comment.

This museum fell short of fullfilling the generally accepted fundimental roles of a museum: conservation, research, and education.