The Museum Catalogue: An Essential Document

Inventory systems, or catalogues, are essential to the fundamental success of museums. Every museum strives to maintain a complete and accurate catalogue of its collection. This desire is not always achieved as the day to day responsibilities of the registrar detract from time spent on updating the catalogue.

The catalogue acts as an inventory system, providing the museum with a complete list of what it hold in the collection. The lack of a complete catalogue is unfortunate because “in addition to facilitating the improvement of research, documentation, and storage, an ongoing inventory system can be an essential security device.” (Malaro, Marie. A legal Primer on Managing Museum Collections) The catalogue provides a secure source of information on every object held within the museum. This information includes, but is not limited to, the object’s location within the museum and a detailed history and description of the object. This information helps the museum recognize when a theft has occurred and can be used by authorities to locate and recover the stolen objects. An ambiguous description can help authorities locate objects to an extent, but without a fully detailed description the museum may never be able to prove rightful ownership and recover these pieces.

As personnel change, knowledge of objects is lost unless it is recorded in a catalogue. Museums are constantly adding to their collections. Between new additions and changing personnel it becomes difficult to complete all categories within a catalogue for each object.

A typical catalogue will answer the following questions about an object: What type of object is it? What is the object made of? How was it made? How big is it? Does it have any identifying markings or distinguishing features? Does the object have a known title? What is represented? When was it made? Who made it? Who has owned it? The typical catalogue will also have a short description and photograph. When these questions are answered and recorded the security of a collection is improved exponentially.

Sassona Norton at the Morris Museum

The Morris Museum, located in Morristown, NJ, is currently exhibiting a variety of sculpture in their new gallery. The exhibit shows the development of sculpture from ancient Buddhist reliefs to contemporary sculpture. The exhibit opened on November 3, 2008 and will remain on display through May 2009. The exhibit is composed of eleven pieces and features three pieces by artist Sassona Norton.

Sassona Norton is a contemporary sculptor who prefers to work in the traditional process of lost-wax bronze casting, a technique that spawns from the ancient Egyptians who followed the same process, substituting wax for sand. Norton was selected out of thirty artists to construct a public memorial to 9/11 in Norristown, PA. The current exhibit at the Morris Museum is the second time the museum has featured Norton’s work. She was the primary artist in a 2006 exhibit. In the current exhibit she has three pieces, Memories of Sweetness, Unquenchable Thirst, and An Hour Before Dawn. Each piece was given to the museum directly from Norton for the purpose of exhibition.



Two of these works are used to frame the exhibit as the first and last things a visitor encounters. The first, Memories of Sweetness depicts a bald woman puckering her lips as if to kiss while holding out her hands as if she were holding a small animal with one hand and petting it with the other. The artist has chosen to show the woman’s hands and head, leaving the rest to the imagination. Her soft gesture conflicts with the coldness projected from the Cor-ten steel I-beam shaped column upon which it rests. This piece stands facing the entrance greeting each visitor.

The second donated piece faces the exit of the exhibit. This piece, Unquenchable Thirst shows the same female figure, only in this rendition her mouth is open and her hands are cupped as if she was holding water. Here too the artist has chosen to portray the woman’s hands and head on a Cor-ten steel beam. The sculptures share qualities of style, technique, and subject, but the end result is drastically different. Where the first piece is welcoming, reminding visitors of loving grandmothers, the second is harsh and unyielding. Norton accomplishes this with the severity of the gapping mouth.

Both of Norton’s pieces were created using the lost-wax bronze casting technique. Each sculpture is made of parts that give the illusion of the whole. Her use of parts to make a whole has been a major theme throughout her career.

The exhibit greatly benefits from the inclusion of these two pieces. The pieces show how one of the oldest techniques in sculpture is used in the contemporary world. Because of the connection between the old and new worlds of sculpture these works pull together the ancient Buddhist wood carvings with modern works of mix media and abstract thoughts.

SI extended hours

The Smithsonian Institute has three of the most popular US museums; the Air and Space museum, the Natural History museum, and the American History museum. This summer these museums will be open later than ever before. The museums had previously closed at 5:30 pm. Now, three times a week they will be open one to two hours later.

FINALLY!!

What has the Smithsonian been waiting for? I recently lived in DC and can honestly say that, as a local, it was nearly impossible to visit these museums. They were open while people were at work and then mobbed by tourists and children throughout the weekend. With these extended evenings it is my belief that locals will frequent these museums more often. Let's face it, locals are always happier when they can avoid tourists.

Attic Pottery: How it was made.

The following is a description of how a Lekythos, such as the one pictured below would have been made in Ancient Greece, around 400 BC.



Attic clay is rich sedentary clay that is characteristically an orange-red color and has plastic properties, making it ideal for pottery. Once the attic clay is dug up it is purified by levigation with large amounts of water and left to settle. At this time stones and other heavy materials will settle at the bottom.

Once the clay is purified and aged the potter throws the pot. In this process the potter shapes the clay as an assistant turns the potter’s wheel. Once the shape is formed the piece is trimmed and uneven clay is removed. At this point the potter added the handle and left the vase to dry. When the vase became leather-hard it would be burnished. This process involved rubbing a hard, smooth piece of leather or wood vigorously across the surface. This would compact and smooth the surface, making it shiny and more durable.

After burnishing the Painter would have sketched the design onto the clay. Then a slip was added to create the black and white gloss that acts as the background on the vase. The clay was left bare where the images were intended to go, the white areas would have been the exception to this, as the whole area would need to be covered to create the white band. The slip was then burnished. The potter painted over his sketch to outline the red-figures with the same material used to create the gloss. In areas where the Painter would have wanted a brown or lighter shade the gloss applied would have been watered down. Once the design was complete the vase was placed in a kiln. The vase then underwent a three-part firing process. In phase one the kiln reaches approximately 800°C in a highly oxidized atmosphere. Phase two, or the reducing phase, involves closing the air vent and raising the temperature to approximately 950°C. In the final phase the kiln is cooled to 900°C and oxygen is allowed in for oxidizing. The vase is then removed from the kiln, ready for use.

The Photograph and the Connoisseur

Connoisseurship is done through extensive research and comparing individual pieces with one known to be from the attributed artist’s oeuvre. This is a difficult and often expensive task, because the connoisseur has to compare artworks by viewing one for which he takes extensive notes and then traveling, often internationally, to view the other. In this scenario the connoisseur conducts the comparison with nothing but a few notes and his memory. This is hardly a perfect system. When connoisseurs were relatively new they may have had access to a sketch or print copy of one or both works, but these were only as good as the copier was skilled and presented the copier’s interpretation of the work. The connoisseur had quite the task to complete. In the 1820’s his task seemed to become easier with the advent of modern photography.

Photography allowed connoisseurs to view and compare works together, under the same conditions, without the difficulties of travel, the deficiencies of memories, and the interference of a copier’s interpretation. This meant that the connoisseur could compare brushstrokes and make a more accurate comparison. However, this was not the case. Connoisseurs believed that they were making accurate comparisons, and thus their dedications were beyond doubt, but they soon realized they were still dependent upon the interpretation of the photograph and the quality of the image. The lighting, angle, and distance of the photograph can affect what the connoisseur sees and does not see. Photography is a deceptive aid. While it is more practical than travelling great distances to see two works separately, and more accurate then a drawn or printed copy, photography is still just a copy.

While photography does not provide accurate copies for traditional connoisseur methods, these copies are useful for non-traditional comparison methods. An example of a non-traditional method is discussed in the article “Fractal expressionism.” Through the use of photography the abstract paintings of Jackson Pollock were analyzed. A computer grid was placed over a scanned photograph to analyze the dispersal pattern of paint in Pollock’s works. Through this method a pattern was discovered that could not have been proven without the use of photography. This pattern can now be used to determine the authenticity of paintings attributed to Jackson Pollock.


A primary task of the connoisseur is to judge the authenticity of an
As photographic technology has developed the role of photography in connoisseurship has expanded. Since the birth of modern photography art has been studied through photographs. While the majority of people experience artworks solely through photographs, professional connoisseurs recognize the limitations of a photo and prefer to see the artwork in person and then use a photograph in addition to notes to aid their memories. In this fashion, photography will continue to be used by connoisseurs. It will also be used in conjunction with science to find new tools for authenticating artwork. The photograph is welcome to stay, but only as an advisory tool. It will not be used as the primary source for comparison.

3 Types of Prints

The three major categories of printmaking techniques are Relief, Intaglio, and Lithographic.

The oldest known printed book, the Diamond Sutra from China, was made from relief prints. It is currently held in the British Library. Relief is the oldest printmaking category and has undergone many adaptations creating multiple techniques including but not limited to: woodcut, wood engraving, photoengraving, mezzotint, anastatic printing, stipple engraving, and linocut. Relief printing developed separately in ancient times in China and Egypt. When working in relief artists remove the areas of the matrix that will not be printed. This leaves the lines and “image” to be printed on the surface plane, while the “white” space, or area that is not going to be printed below the surface plane. The surface of the matrix is then coated in an even layer of ink, and then pressed onto paper or linen. This process does not require large amounts of pressure to create a print.

Intaglio prints are made from matrixes similar to relief prints, however the area to be printed is carved out of the surface. This leaves the “white” area of the print on the surface and the “colored” area depressed. In the printing process ink is pressed into the plate and then wiped off of the surface of the matrix. This process is typically done with a printing press to ensure that high, even pressure is placed on the matrix. The press pushes the paper into the inked crevices. The pressure creates an outline or indentation in the paper along the edge of the matrix. This technique was invented in the 1430’s. Intaglio prints were used to create multiple copies of books and art before the advancement of photography and the digital age. Intaglio prints are still used today, though they are less fashionable. An example of a recent intaglio print can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Roger Vieillard’s 1963 Horse. The print clearly shows how the depth of a carved line in the Matrix effects the resulting shade and clarity of the print. The cactus in the image is carved deeper than any other line, making it pop out on the page.

Lithographic prints are made from a smooth porous stone or plate. The image is made with a grease pencil on the surface of the stone. The stone is then wetted, which will stop the oil-based ink from adhering to the stone when spread across the surface for printing. This technique is the only one that will produce a printed image that is in the same direction as the original. The other techniques produce mirrored reflections. This technique was invented in 1796 by Alois Senefelder and became popular in the early 19th century. Artists such as Manet, Redon, and Goya composed lithographic prints during this time. The MoMA currently has Redon’s L’Oeil comme un ballon bizarre se dirige vers l’infini from 1882. The piece is an excellent example of the shades of gray in a lithographic artist’s repertoire as well as the detail and clear lines possible with this technique.

Loot: The Battle Over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World

“They were made by other civilizations and found in Turkey. It’s the heritage of all humanity, the heritage of the whole world. This land belongs to us, but what we find under the soil, if we can’t look after it, maybe other people should.” –Mr. Kazim Akbiyikoglu

Whether one agrees or disagrees with the above statement, Sharon Waxman’s book, Loot: the Battle over the Stolen Treasures of the Ancient World will facilitate an understanding of the points of view about repatriation. Sharon Waxman attempts to accurately depict the multitude of opinions concerning repatriation. Whether or not she has been successful is debatable, but Loot definitely hits close to the mark. Waxman focuses her efforts on four countries: Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. All four of these have had objects repatriated to them from major Western museums, such as the Museé du Louvre, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the J. Paul Getty Museum. By focusing on these four countries, Waxman provides a balanced array of opinions pertaining to repatriation, a hot topic in today’s art world as museums and collectors are forced, for the first time, to answer to countries of origin for questionable past collection policies.



These origin countries want the return of the art of past civilizations which has been removed from their country under questionable circumstances. They argue that the art of ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, is their heritage first, before the heritage of western civilization and the world. Museums that are currently in possession of such objects argue that these pieces belong to the whole world and should be housed where the most people will have access to them. These museums frequently try to support the actions of the past by arguing that modern day inhabitants of these ancient sites are not direct descendants of the civilizations that created the art and therefore lack understanding and appreciation for the artifacts in question. The local inhabitants are portrayed as current inhabitants of the land who see ancient art as a price tag and perpetuate the looting of priceless art. Waxman present these two conflicting points of view and the variances in between without showing her personal opinion.

In Loot, Sharon Waxman approaches repatriation as a veteran journalist. She wrote for the Washington Post for ten years, reporting on Middle Eastern and European politics and culture. She went on to be a New York Times cultural correspondent, primarily focusing on Hollywood. Prior to her journalism career, she received a Master’s from Oxford University in Middle East Studies. Waxman’s approach to researching repatriation reflects her background in journalism because it was primarily focused on collecting first person narratives. She used literary sources to gather an understanding of the history of the four countries presented, but the information regarding present day situations stems from the interviews she conducted. The individuals interviewed were impressive and abundant. Interviewees include current museum staff, past museum staff, national cultural directors, law enforcement, art smugglers, and community members. Waxman provides her readers with the uncommon opportunity to see a panoramic view of repatriation that includes the perspectives of people who have had first hand experiences with repatriation. These experiences are often conveyed in their own words.

These interviews allow her to present the various perspectives held by individuals as well as the different approaches to achieving repatriation used by the four countries she focuses on. Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and Italy follow strategies with various levels of aggression. According to Waxman, Egypt’s strategy has been directed by Zahi Hawass, the secretary-general of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities. Hawass has proved to be a formable figure for museums to contend with. He prefers to use the media to grab the public’s attention and support. This is an unconventional approach that is typically looked down upon by museum professionals who believe these issues should be solved through direct communication with the museum. He often surprises people with his candor and spontaneous outbursts in situations when the media is present. While he is often over the top, it has proven to be an effective technique. Today every museum with an Egyptian collection knows his name and is weary of his attention.



Turkey’s approach has traditionally been subtler than Egypt’s. Waxman focuses on the return of the Lydian Hoard to Turkey from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City to show Turkey’s approach. In this example, repatriation was the result of the hard work of civilians with sparse support from the government. While the government has recently increased its role in repatriation, the return of the Lydian Hoard was the result of one journalist’s persistent effort. Waxman presents this example by showing how the Lydian Hoard originally left Turkey as the result of greed and a lack of understanding and respect by the local community. Even after its return, the Lydian Hoard was not safe from greedy hands and the prize piece of the collection was stolen from the museum. Today Turkey’s museums are underfunded and lack security, space and qualified personnel.



Greece has approached repatriation by individually tackling the arguments used against them. The primary example that Waxman uses is the Elgin Marbles held in the British museum. One argument the British Museum has used in the debate over where the marbles belong is that Greece lacked a place where the marbles could be properly cared for and shared with the public. However, this is no longer the case. A new Acropolis museum that meets these provisions is scheduled to open in the summer of 2009. Whether the marbles return to stand in this new facility is yet to be determined. In Greece’s effort to have the Elgin marbles and other artifacts returned, they have attempted to meet the standards of the international museum community and use international laws to support their claims.



Italy has traditionally ignored the use of investigation and law. The primary example Waxman provides is the Italian government’s interaction with the J. Paul Getty museum. In this situation, the Italian government collected evidence that many of the objects held in the Getty’s antiquities department were illegally exported from Italy. Italy pressured the Getty into returning these objects by threatening legal action. Italy eventually followed through on its threat and filed charges against one of the museum’s curators, Marion True. This seems to have worked as a large portion of the requested artifacts have been shipped to Italy, while other objects are awaiting the result of continuing negotiations.



Loot is an engaging read as one is welcomed into a world of intrigue. Waxman is able to show why repatriation is an important and highly debated issue. Whether or not the reader is familiar with the world of museums, they will enjoy the time spent within the pages and go away with new knowledge on the subject. Because of Waxman’s talent as a writer and knowledge of the subject, the reader is able to understand the different and often contradicting perspectives of individuals, institutions, and countries involved.